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"Vlad Țepeș" redirects here. For other uses,
see Vlad Țepeș
(disambiguation).
This article is about Vlad Dracula, a
medieval ruler of Wallachia. For the
fictional vampire, see Count Dracula.
Vlad III, known as Vlad the Impaler (Romanian: Vlad
Țepeș, pronunciation: [ˈvlad ˈt͡sepeʃ] ) or Vlad Dracula (/ˈdrækjələ/ (Romanian: Vlad
Drăculea, pronunciation: [ˈdrəkule̯a] ); 1428/31 – 1476/77), was voivode (or prince) of Wallachiathree times between 1448 and his death. He
was the second son of Vlad Dracul, who became the ruler of Wallachia in 1436. Vlad and his younger brother, Radu, were held as hostages in the Ottoman Empire in 1442 to secure their father's loyalty. Vlad's father and eldest
brother, Mircea, were murdered after John Hunyadi, regent-governor of Hungary, invaded Wallachia in 1447. Hunyadi
installed Vlad's second cousin, Vladislav II, as the new voivode.
Hunyadi launched a military campaign against the
Ottomans in the autumn of 1448, and Vladislav
accompanied him. Vlad broke into Wallachia with Ottoman support in October, but
Vladislav returned and Vlad sought refuge in the
Ottoman Empire before the end of the year. Vlad went to Moldavia in 1449 or
1450, and later to Hungary. He invaded Wallachia with Hungarian support in
1456. Vladislav died fighting against him. Vlad began
a purge among the Wallachian boyars to
strengthen his position. He came into conflict with the Transylvanian Saxons, who supported
his opponents, Danand Basarab Laiotă (who were Vladislav's brothers), and Vlad's illegitimate half-brother, Vlad the Monk. Vlad plundered
the Saxon villages, taking the captured people to Wallachia where he had
them impaled (which
inspired his cognomen). Peace was
restored in 1460.
The Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, ordered Vlad
to pay homage to him personally, but Vlad had the Sultan's two envoys captured
and impaled. In February 1462, he attacked Ottoman territory, massacring tens
of thousands of Turks and Bulgarians. Mehmed launched a campaign against
Wallachia to replace Vlad with Vlad's younger brother, Radu.
Vlad attempted to capture the
sultan at Târgovişte during the
night of 16–17 June 1462. The sultan and the main Ottoman army left
Wallachia, but more and more Wallachians deserted to Radu. Vlad went to Transylvania to seek assistance
from Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, in late 1462,
but Corvinus had him
imprisoned.
Vlad was held in
captivity in Visegrád from 1463
to 1475. During this period, anecdotes about his cruelty started to spread in
Germany and Italy. He was released at the request of Stephen III of Moldavia in the
summer of 1475. He fought in Corvinus's army against
the Ottomans in Bosnia in early 1476. Hungarian and Moldavian troops helped him
to force Basarab Laiotă
(who had dethroned Vlad's brother, Radu) to flee from
Wallachia in November. Basarab returned with Ottoman
support before the end of the year. Vlad was killed in battle before
10 January 1477. Books describing Vlad's cruel acts were among the first
bestsellers in the German-speaking territories. In Russia, popular stories
suggested that Vlad was able to strengthen central government only through
applying brutal punishments, and a similar view was adopted by most Romanian
historians in the 19th century. Vlad's reputation for cruelty and his patronymic inspired
the name of the vampire Count Dracula in Bram Stoker's 1897
novel Dracula.
Contents
·
1Name
·
2Early life
·
3Reigns
o
3.1First rule
o
3.2In exile
o
3.3Second rule
§ 3.3.1Consolidation
§ 3.3.2Conflict with the Saxons
§ 3.3.3Ottoman war
o
3.4Imprisonment in Hungary
o
3.5Third rule and death
·
4Family
·
5Legacy
o
5.1Reputation for cruelty
§ 5.1.1First records
§ 5.1.2German stories
§ 5.1.3Slavic stories
§ 5.1.4Assertion by modern
standards
o
5.2National hero
o
5.3Vampire mythology
·
6Appearance and
representations
·
7Gallery
·
8See also
·
9References
·
10Sources
o
10.1Primary sources
o
10.2Secondary sources
·
11Further reading
·
12External links
Further
information: House of Drăculești
Vlad's
father, Vlad Dracul
The
expression Dracula, which is now primarily known as the name of a
fictional vampire, was for
centuries known as the sobriquet of
Vlad III.[1][2] Diplomatic
reports and popular stories referred to him as Dracula, Dracuglia, or Drakula already
in the 15th century.[1] He himself
signed his two letters as "Dragulya" or
"Drakulya" in the late 1470s.[3] His name
had its origin in the Romanian sobriquet of his father, Vlad Dracul ("Vlad
the Dragon"), who received it after he became a member of the Order of the Dragon.[4][5] Dracula is
the Slavonic genitive form of Dracul, meaning "the son of Dracul
(or the Dragon)".[5][6] In modern
Romanian, dracul means "the
devil", which contributed to Vlad's bad reputation.[6]
Vlad III is
known as Vlad Țepeș (or
Vlad the Impaler) in Romanian historiography.[6] This
sobriquet is connected to the impalement that was
his favorite method of execution.[6] The
Ottoman writer Tursun Beg referred
to him as Kazıklı Voyvoda (Impaler Lord) around 1500.[6]Mircea the Shepherd, Voivode of
Wallachia, used this sobriquet when referring to Vlad III in a letter of grant
on 1 April 1551.[7]
Vlad was the
second legitimate son of Vlad II Dracul, who was an
illegitimate son of Mircea I of Wallachia. Vlad II
had won the moniker "Dracul" for his
membership in the Order of the Dragon,[8] a militant
fraternity founded by Holy Roman Emperor
Sigismund. The Order of the Dragon was dedicated to halting
the Ottoman advance into Europe.[9] As he was
old enough to be a candidate to the throne of Wallachia in 1448, his time of
birth would have been between 1428 and 1431.[10][9] Vlad was
most probably born after his father settled in Transylvania in 1429.[11][9] Historian Radu Florescu writes
that Vlad was born in the Transylvanian Saxon town
of Sighișoara (then in
the Kingdom of Hungary), where his
father lived in a three-storey stone
house from 1431 to 1435.[12] Modern
historians identify Vlad's mother either as a daughter or a kinswoman of Alexander I of Moldavia,[9][12][13] or as his
father's unknown first wife.[14]
The house in the
main square of Sighișoara where
Vlad's father lived from 1431 to 1435
Vlad II Dracul seized Wallachia after the death of his
half-brother Alexander I Aldea in 1436.[15][16] One of his
charters (which was issued on 20 January 1437) preserved the first
reference to Vlad III and his elder brother, Mircea, mentioning
them as their father's "first born sons".[10] They were
mentioned in four further documents between 1437 and 1439.[10]The last of the
four charters also referred to their younger brother, Radu.[10]
After a meeting
with John Hunyadi, Voivode of Transylvania, Vlad II Dracul did not support an Ottoman invasion of Transylvania
in March 1442.[17] The Ottoman Sultan, Murad II, ordered him to
come to Gallipoli to
demonstrate his loyalty.[18][19] Vlad and Radu accompanied their father to the Ottoman Empire, where
they were all imprisoned.[19] Vlad Dracul was released before the end of the year, but Vlad
and Radu remained hostages to secure his loyalty.[18] They were
held imprisoned in the fortress of Eğrigöz
(now Doğrugöz), according to
contemporaneous Ottoman chronicles.[20][21] Their
lives were especially in danger after their father supported Vladislaus, King of Poland
and Hungary, against the Ottoman Empire during the Crusade of Varna in 1444.[22] Vlad II Dracul was convinced that his two sons were "butchered
for the sake of Christian peace", but neither Vlad nor Radu
was murdered or mutilated after their father's rebellion.[22]
Vlad Dracul again acknowledged the sultan's suzerainty and
promised to pay a yearly tribute to him in 1446 or 1447.[23] John
Hunyadi (who had become the regent-governor of Hungary in 1446)[24] broke into
Wallachia in November 1447.[25] The
Byzantine historian Michael Critobulus wrote that Vlad and Radu fled to the Ottoman Empire, which suggests that the
sultan had allowed them to return to Wallachia after their father paid homage
to him.[25] Vlad Dracul and his eldest son, Mircea,
were murdered.[25][14]Hunyadi
made Vladislav II (son of
Vlad Dracul's cousin, Dan II) the ruler of
Wallachia.[25][14]
First rule
Lands ruled
around 1390 by Vlad the Impaler's grandfather, Mircea I of Wallachia (the lands
on the right side of the Danube had been lost to the Ottomans before Vlad's
reign)
Upon the death of his father and elder brother, Vlad
became a potential claimant to Wallachia.[14] Vladislav II of Wallachia accompanied John Hunyadi,
who launched a campaign against the Ottoman Empire in September 1448.[26][27] Taking
advantage of his opponent's absence, Vlad broke into Wallachia at the head of
an Ottoman army in early October.[26][27] He had to
accept that the Ottomans had captured the fortress of Giurgiu on the
Danube and strengthened it.[28]
The Ottomans
defeated Hunyadi's army in the Battle of Kosovo between
17 and 18 October.[29] Hunyadi's
deputy, Nicholas Vízaknai, urged Vlad to come to meet
him in Transylvania, but Vlad refused him.[27] Vladislav II returned to Wallachia at the head of the
remnants of his army.[28] Vlad was
forced to flee to the Ottoman Empire before 7 December 1448.[28][30]
We bring you
news that [Nicholas Vízaknai] writes to us and asks
us to be so kind as to come to him until [John Hunyadi] ... returns from the
war. We are unable to do this because an emissary from Nicopolis
came to us ... and said with great certainty that [Murad II had defeated
Hunyadi]. ... If we come to [Vízaknai] now, the
[Ottomans] could come and kill both you and us. Therefore, we ask you to have
patience until we see what has happened to [Hunyadi]. ... If he returns from
the war we will meet him and we will make peace with him. But if you will be
our enemies now, and if something happens, ... you
will have to answer for it before God
— Vlad's
letter to the councilors of Brașov[30]
In exile
Vlad first
settled in Edirne in
the Ottoman Empire after his
fall.[31][32] Not long
after, he moved to Moldavia, where Bogdan II (his
father's brother-in-law and possibly his maternal uncle) had mounted the throne
with John Hunyadi's support in the autumn of 1449.[31][32] After
Bogdan was murdered by Peter III Aaron in October
1451, Bogdan's son, Stephen, fled to
Transylvania with Vlad to seek assistance from Hunyadi.[31][33] However,
Hunyadi concluded a three-year truce with the Ottoman Empire on
20 November 1451,[34] acknowledging
the Wallachian boyars' right to elect the successor of Vladislav II
if he died.[33]
Vlad allegedly
wanted to settle in Brașov (which was a center
of the Wallachian boyars expelled by Vladislaus II),
but Hunyadi forbade the burghers to give shelter to him on 6 February
1452.[33][35] Vlad
returned to Moldavia where Alexăndrel had
dethroned Peter Aaron.[36] The events
of his life during the years that followed are unknown.[36] He must
have returned to Hungary before 3 July 1456, because on that day Hunyadi
informed the townspeople of Brașov that he had
tasked Vlad with the defence of the Transylvanian
border.[37]
Second rule
Consolidation
Ruins of the
Princely Court in Târgoviște
The
circumstances and the date of Vlad's return to Wallachia are uncertain.[37] He invaded
Wallachia with Hungarian support either in April, July, or in August 1456.[38][39] Vladislav II died during the invasion.[39] Vlad sent
his first extant letter as voivode of Wallachia to the
burghers of Brașov on 10 September.[38] He
promised to protect them in case of an Ottoman invasion of Transylvania, but he
also sought their assistance if the Ottomans occupied Wallachia.[38] In the
same letter, he stated that "when a man or a prince is strong and powerful
he can make peace as he wants to; but when he is weak, a stronger one will come
and do what he wants to him",[40] showing
his authoritarian personality.[38]
Multiple sources
(including Laonikos Chalkokondyles's chronicle)
recorded that hundreds or thousands of people were executed at Vlad's order at
the beginning of his reign.[41] He began a
purge against the boyars who had participated in the murder of his father and
elder brother, or whom he suspected of plotting against him.[42] Chalkokondyles stated that Vlad "quickly effected a
great change and utterly revolutionized the affairs of Wallachia" through
granting the "money, property, and other goods" of his victims to his
retainers.[41] The lists
of the members of the princely council during Vlad's reign also show that only
two of them (Voico Dobrița
and Iova) were able to retain their positions between
1457 and 1461.[43]
Conflict with the
Saxons
Vlad sent the
customary tribute to the sultan.[44] After John
Hunyadi died on 11 August 1456, his elder son, Ladislaus Hunyadibecame the
captain-general of Hungary.[45] He accused
Vlad of having "no intention of remaining faithful" to the king of
Hungary in a letter to the burghers of Brașov,
also ordering them to support Vladislaus II's
brother, Dan III, against Vlad.[38][46] The
burghers of Sibiu supported
another pretender, "a priest of the Romanians who calls himself a Prince's
son".[47] The latter
(identified as Vlad's illegitimate brother, Vlad the Monk)[38][48] took
possession of Amlaș, which had
customarily been held by the rulers of Wallachia in Transylvania.[47]
Medieval seats (or
administrative units) of the Transylvanian Saxons
Ladislaus V of Hungary had Ladislaus Hunyadi
executed on 16 March 1457.[49] Hunyadi's mother, Erzsébet Szilágyi, and her brother, Michael Szilágyi, stirred up a rebellion against the king.[49] Taking advantage of the civil war in Hungary, Vlad
assisted Stephen, son of Bogdan II of Moldavia, in his move to seize
Moldavia in June 1457.[50][51] Vlad also broke into Transylvania and plundered the
villages around Brașov and Sibiu.[52] The earliest German stories about Vlad recounted
that he had carried "men, women, children" from a Saxon village to
Wallachia and had them impaled.[53] Since the Transylvanian Saxonsremained
loyal to the king, Vlad's attack against them strengthened the position of the Szilágyis.[52]
Vlad's
representatives participated in the peace negotiations between Michael Szilágyi and the Saxons.[52] According
to their treaty, the burghers of Brașov agreed
that they would expel Dan from their town.[54][55] Vlad
promised that the merchants of Sibiu could freely "buy and sell"
goods in Wallachia in exchange for the "same treatment" of the
Wallachian merchants in Transylvania.[55] Vlad
referred to Michael Szilágyi as "his Lord and
elder brother" in a letter on 1 December 1457.[56]
Ladislaus Hunyadi's younger brother, Matthias Corvinus, was elected king of Hungary on
24 January 1458.[57] He ordered
the burghers of Sibiu to keep the peace with Vlad on 3 March.[58][59] Vlad
styled himself "Lord and ruler over all of Wallachia, and the duchies of Amlaș and Făgăraș"
on 20 September 1459, showing that he had taken possession of both of
these traditional Transylvanian fiefs of the rulers of Wallachia.[60][61] Michael Szilágyi allowed the boyar Michael (an official of Vladislav II of Wallachia)[62] and other
Wallachian boyars to settle in Transylvania in late March 1458.[59] Before
long, Vlad had the boyar Michael killed.[63]
In May, Vlad
asked the burghers of Brașov to send craftsmen
to Wallachia, but his relationship with the Saxons deteriorated before the end
of the year.[64] According
to a scholarly theory, the conflict emerged after Vlad forbade the Saxons to
enter Wallachia, forcing them to sell their goods to Wallachian merchants at
compulsory border fairs.[65] Vlad's
protectionist tendencies or border fairs are not documented.[66] Instead,
in 1476 Vlad emphasized that he had always promoted free trade during his
reign.[67]
The Saxons
confiscated the steel that a Wallachian merchant had bought in Brașov without repaying the price to him.[68] In
response, Vlad "ransacked and tortured" some Saxon merchants,
according to a letter that Basarab Laiotă (a son of
Dan II of Wallachia)[69] wrote on
21 January 1459.[70] Basarab had settled in Sighișoara and laid
claim to Wallachia.[70] However,
Matthias Corvinus supported Dan III (who was
again in Brașov) against Vlad.[70] Dan III
stated that Vlad had Saxon merchants and their children impaled or burnt alive in
Wallachia.[70]
You know that
King Matthias has sent me and when I came to Țara Bârsei the
officials and councilors of Brașov and the old
men of Țara Bârsei
cried to us with broken hearts about the things which Dracula, our enemy, did;
how he did not remain faithful to our Lord, the king, and had sided with the
[Ottomans]. ... [H]e captured all the merchants of Brașov
and Țara Bârsei who
had gone in peace to Wallachia and took all their wealth; but he was not
satisfied only with the wealth of these people, but he imprisoned them and
impaled them, 41 in all. Nor were these people enough; he became even more evil
and gathered 300 boys from Brașov and Țara Bârsei that he found in
... Wallachia. Of these he impaled some and burned others.
— Basarab Laiotă's letter to the
councilors of Brașov and Țara
Bârsei[68]
Dan III broke
into Wallachia, but Vlad defeated and executed him before 22 April 1460.[71][72] Vlad
invaded southern Transylvania and destroyed the suburbs of Brașov,
ordering the impalement of all men and women who had been captured.[73] During the
ensuing negotiations, Vlad demanded the expulsion or punishment of all
Wallachian refugees from Brașov.[73] Peace had been
restored before 26 July 1460, when Vlad addressed the burghers of Brașov as his "brothers and friends".[74] Vlad
invaded the region around Amlaș and Făgăraș on 24 August to punish the
local inhabitants who had supported Dan III.[44][75]
Ottoman war
See also: Night Attack at Târgovişte
The Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, who invaded
Wallachia during Vlad's reign
Konstantin Mihailović (who served as a janissary in the sultan's army) recorded that Vlad refused to
pay homage to the sultan in an unspecified year.[76] The Renaissance historian Giovanni Maria degli Angiolelli likewise wrote
that Vlad had failed to pay tribute to the sultan for three years.[76] Both records suggest that Vlad ignored the
suzerainty of the Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed II, already in 1459, but both works were written decades
after the events.[77] Tursun Beg (a secretary in the sultan's court) stated that Vlad
only turned against the Ottoman Empire when the sultan "was away on the
long expedition in Trebizon" in 1461.[78] According to Tursun Beg,
Vlad started new negotiations with Matthias Corvinus,
but the sultan was soon informed by his spies.[79][80] Mehmed sent his envoy, the Greek Thomas Katabolinos (also known as Yunus bey), to Wallachia, ordering Vlad to come to
Constantinople.[79][80] He also sent secret instructions to Hamza, bey of Nicopolis, to capture Vlad after he crossed the Danube.[81][82] Vlad found out the sultan's "deceit and
trickery", captured Hamza and Katabolinos, and
had them executed.[81][82]
After the
execution of the Ottoman officials, Vlad gave orders in fluent Turkish to the
commander of the fortress of Giurgiu to open the gates, enabling the Wallachian
soldiers to break in the fortress and capture it.[82] He invaded
the Ottoman Empire, devastating the villages along the Danube.[83] He
informed Matthias Corvinus about the military action
in a letter on 11 February 1462.[84] He stated
that more than "23,884 Turks and Bulgarians" had been killed at his
order during the campaign.[83][84] He sought
military assistance from Corvinus, declaring that he
had broken the peace with the sultan "for the honor" of the king and
the Holy Crown of Hungary and
"for the preservation of Christianity and the strengthening of the
Catholic faith".[84] The
relationship between Moldavia and Wallachia had become tense by 1462, according
to a letter of the Genoese governor
of Kaffa.[84]
Having learnt of
Vlad's invasion, Mehmed II raised an army of more than 150,000 strong, that was said to be "second in size only to the
one"[85] that occupied Constantinople
in 1453, according to Chalkokondyles.[86][87] The size
of the army suggests that the sultan wanted to occupy Wallachia, according to a
number of historians (including Franz Babinger, Radu Florescu, and Nicolae Stoicescu).[88][86][87] On the
other hand, Mehmed had granted Wallachia to Vlad's brother, Radu,
before the invasion of Wallachia, showing that the sultan's principal purpose
was only the change of the ruler of Wallachia.[88]
The Battle with
Torches, a painting by Theodor Aman about
Vlad's Night Attack at Târgovişte
The Ottoman fleet landed at Brăila (which was
the only Wallachian port on the Danube) in May.[86] The main
Ottoman army crossed the Danube under the command of the sultan at Nicoplis on 4 June 1462.[89][90] Outnumbered
by the enemy, Vlad adopted a scorched earth policy and
retreated towards Târgoviște.[91] During the
night of 16–17 June, Vlad broke into the Ottoman camp in an attempt to capture
or kill the sultan.[89] Either the
imprisonment or the death of the sultan would have caused a panic among the
Ottomans, which could have enabled Vlad to defeat the Ottoman army.[89][91] However,
the Wallachians "missed the court of the sultan
himself"[92] and
attacked the tents of the viziersMahmut Pasha and Isaac.[91] Having
failed to attack the sultan's camp, Vlad and his retainers left the Ottoman
camp at dawn.[93] Mehmed
entered Târgoviște at the end of June.[89] The town
had been deserted, but the Ottomans were horrified to discover a "forest
of the impaled" (thousands of stakes with the carcasses of executed
people), according to Chalkokondyles.[94]
The sultan's
army entered into the area of the impalements, which was
seventeen stades long and
seven stades wide. There were large stakes there on
which, as it was said, about twenty thousand men, women, and children had been
spitted, quite a sight for the Turks and the sultan himself. The sultan was
seized with amazement and said that it was not possible to deprive of his
country a man who had done such great deeds, who had such a diabolical
understanding of how to govern his realm and its people. And he said that a man
who had done such things was worth much. The rest of the Turks were dumbfounded
when they saw the multitude of men on the stakes. There were infants too
affixed to their mothers on the stakes, and birds had made their nests in their
entrails.
— Laonikos Chalkokondyles: The Histories[95]
Tursun Beg recorded that the Ottomans suffered from summer heat
and thirst during the campaign.[96] The sultan
decided to retreat from Wallachia and marched towards Brăila.[82] Stephen III
of Moldavia hurried to Chilia (now Kiliya in
Ukraine) to seize the important fortress where a Hungarian garrison had been
placed.[87][97][98] Vlad also
departed for Chilia, but left behind a troop of 6,000
strong to try to hinder the march of the sultan's army, but the Ottomans
defeated the Wallachians.[96] Stephen of
Moldavia was wounded during the siege of Chilia and
returned to Moldavia before Vlad came to the fortress.[99]
The main Ottoman
army left Wallachia, but Vlad's brother Radu and his
Ottoman troops stayed behind in the Bărăgan Plain.[100]Radu sent messengers to the Wallachians,
reminding them that the sultan could again invade their country.[100] Although Vlad defeated Radu and
his Ottoman allies in two battles during the following months, more and more Wallachians deserted to Radu.[101][102] Vlad
withdrew to the Carpathian Mountains, hoping that Matthias Corvinus
would help him regain his throne.[103]However, Albert
of Istenmező, the deputy of the Count of the Székelys, had recommended in mid-August that
the Saxons recognize Radu.[101] Radu also made an offer to the burghers of Brașov to confirm their commercial privileges and pay
them a compensation of 15,000 ducats.[101]
Imprisonment in
Hungary
Renaissance
palaces of Matthias Corvinus's summer
residence at Visegrád (engraving
from the 1480s)
Matthias Corvinus came to Transylvania in November 1462.[104] The
negotiations between Corvinus and Vlad lasted for
weeks,[105] but Corvinus did not want to wage war against the Ottoman
Empire.[106][107] At the
king's order, his Czech mercenary commander, John Jiskra
of Brandýs, captured Vlad
near Rucăr in
Wallachia.[104][106]
To provide an
explanation for Vlad's imprisonment to Pope Pius II and
the Venetians (who had
sent money to finance a campaign against the Ottoman Empire), Corvinus presented three letters, allegedly written by Vlad
on 7 November 1462, to Mehmed II, Mahmud Pasha, and Stephen of
Moldavia.[104][105] According
to the letters, Vlad offered to join his forces with the sultan's army against
Hungary if the sultan restored him to his throne.[108]Most historians
agree that the documents were forged to give grounds for Vlad's imprisonment.[106][108] Corvinus's court historian, Antonio Bonfini, admitted that the reason for Vlad's
imprisonment was never clarified.[106] Florescu writes, "[T]he style of writing, the rhetoric
of meek submission (hardly compatible with what we know of Dracula's
character), clumsy wording, and poor Latin" are all evidence that the
letters could not be written on Vlad's order.[108] He
associates the author of the forgery with a Saxon priest of Brașov.[108]
Vlad was first
imprisoned "in the city of Belgrade"[109] (now Alba Iulia in
Romania), according to Chalkokondyles.[110] Before long, he was taken to Visegrád, where he was
held for fourteen years.[110] No
documents referring to Vlad between 1462 and 1475 have been preserved.[111] In the
summer of 1475, Stephen III of Moldavia sent his envoys to Matthias Corvinus, asking him to send Vlad to Wallachia against Basarab Laiotă, who had
submitted himself to the Ottomans.[104] Stephen
wanted to secure Wallachia for a ruler who had been an enemy of the Ottoman
Empire, because "the Wallachians [were] like the
Turks" to the Moldavians, according to his letter.[112] According
to the Slavic stories about Vlad, he was only released after he converted to
Catholicism.[113]
Third rule and
death
Matthias Corvinus recognized Vlad as the lawful prince of Wallachia,
but he did not provide him military assistance to regain his principality.[104] Vlad
settled in a house in Pest.[114] When a group of soldiers broke into the house while pursuing
a thief who had tried to hide there, Vlad had their commander executed because
they had not asked his permission before entering his home, according to the
Slavic stories about his life.[112] Vlad moved
to Transylvania in June 1475.[115] He wanted
to settle in Sibiu and sent his envoy to the town in early June to arrange a
house for him.[115] Mehmed II
acknowledged Basarab Laiotă
as the lawful ruler of Wallachia.[115] Corvinus ordered the burghers of Sibiu to give 200 golden
florins to Vlad from the royal revenues on 21 September, but Vlad left
Transylvania for Buda in October.[116]
Vlad bought a
house in Pécs that
became known as Drakula háza ("Dracula's house" in Hungarian).[117] In January
1476 John Pongrác
of Dengeleg, Voivode of
Transylvania, urged the people of Brașov to send
to Vlad all those of his supporters who had settled in the town, because Corvinus and Basarab Laiotă had concluded a treaty.[117] The relationship between the Transylvanian Saxons and Basarab remained tense, and the Saxons gave shelter to Basarab's opponents during the following months.[117]Corvinus dispatched Vlad and the Serbian Vuk Grgurević to fight
against the Ottomans in Bosnia in early 1476.[113][118] They
captured Srebrenica and other
fortresses in February and March 1476.[113]
Basarab Laiotă, who could secure his throne against Vlad with Ottoman
support
Mehmed II invaded Moldavia and
defeated Stephen III in the Battle of Valea Albă on
26 July 1476.[119] Stephen Báthory and Vlad entered Moldavia,
forcing the sultan to lift the siege of the fortress at Târgu Neamț in late
August, according to a letter of Matthias Corvinus.[120] The contemporaneous Jakob Unrest
added that Vuk Grgurević
and a member of the noble Jakšić family also
participated in the struggle against the Ottomans in Moldavia.[120]
Matthias Corvinus ordered the Transylvanian Saxons to support Báthory's planned invasion of Wallachia on 6 September
1476, also informing them that Stephen of Moldavia would also invade Wallachia.[121] Vlad
stayed in Brașov and confirmed the commercial
privileges of the local burghers in Wallachia on 7 October 1476.[121] Báthory's forces captured Târgoviște
on 8 November.[121] Stephen of
Moldavia and Vlad ceremoniously confirmed their alliance, and they occupied
Bucharest, forcing Basarab Laiotă
to seek refuge in the Ottoman Empire on 16 November.[121] Vlad
informed the merchants of Brașov about his
victory, urging them to come to Wallachia.[122] He was
crowned before 26 November.[117]
Basarab Laiotă returned to
Wallachia with Ottoman support, and Vlad died fighting against them in late
December 1476 or early January 1477.[123][117] In a
letter written on 10 January 1477, Stephen III of Moldavia related
that Vlad's Moldavian retinue had also been massacred.[124] According
to Leonardo Botta, the Milanese ambassador to Buda,
the Ottomans cut Vlad's corpse into pieces.[124][123] Bonfini wrote that Vlad's head was sent to Mehmed II.[125]
The place of his
burial is unknown.[126] According
to popular tradition (which was first recorded in the late 19th century),[127] Vlad was
buried in the Monastery of Snagov.[128] However,
the excavations carried out by Dinu V. Rosetti in 1933 found no tomb below the supposed
"unmarked tombstone" of Vlad in the monastery church. Rosetti reported: "Under the tombstone attributed to
Vlad there was no tomb. Only many bones and jaws of
horses."[127] Historian
Constantin Rezachevici said Vlad was most probably
buried in the first church of the Comana Monastery, which had been
established by Vlad and was near the battlefield where he was killed.[127]
Vlad had two
wives, according to modern specialists.[131][132] His first
wife may have been an illegitimate daughter of John Hunyadi, according to
historian Alexandru Simon.[131] Vlad's
second wife was Jusztina Szilágyi, who was a
cousin of Matthias Corvinus.[131][133] She was
the widow of Vencel Pongrác
of Szentmiklós when "Ladislaus
Dragwlya" married her, most probably in 1475.[134] She survived Vlad Dracul, and
first married Pál Suki, then János
Erdélyi.[133]
Vlad's eldest
son,[135] Mihnea, was born in
1462.[136] Vlad's
unnamed second son was killed before 1486.[135] Vlad's
third son, Vlad Drakwlya, unsuccessfully
laid claim to Wallachia around 1495.[135][137] He was the
forefather of the noble Drakwla family.[135]
Reputation for
cruelty
First records
Stories about
Vlad's brutal acts began circulating during his lifetime.[138] After his arrest, courtiers of Matthias Corvinus
promoted their spread.[139] The papal legate, Niccolo Modrussiense, had already written about such stories to
Pope Pius II in 1462.[140] Two years
later, the pope included them in his Commentaries.[141]
The meistersinger Michael Beheim wrote a lengthy poem about
Vlad's deeds, allegedly based on his conversation with a Catholic monk who had
managed to escape from Vlad's prison.[141] The poem,
called Von ainem wutrich
der heis Trakle waida von der Walachei (Story
of a Bloodthirsty Madman Called Dracula of Wallachia), was performed at the
court of Frederick III, Holy Roman
Emperor in Wiener Neustadt during the
winter of 1463.[141][142] According
to one of Beheim's stories, Vlad had two monks
impaled to assist them to go to heaven, also ordering the impalement of their
donkey because it began braying after its masters' death.[141]Beheim also accused Vlad of duplicity, stating that Vlad had
promised support to both Matthias Corvinus and
Mehmed II but did not keep the promise.[141]
In 1475 Gabriele
Rangoni, Bishop of Eger (and a
former papal legate),[143] understood
that Vlad had been imprisoned because of his cruelty.[144] Rangoni also recorded the rumour
that while in prison Vlad caught rats to cut them up into pieces or stuck them
on small pieces of wood, because he was unable to "forget his
wickedness".[144][145] Antonio Bonfini also recorded anecdotes about Vlad in his Historia Pannonica around
1495.[146] Bonfini wanted to justify both the removal and the
restoration of Vlad by Matthias.[146] He
described Vlad as "a man of unheard cruelty and justice".[147] Bonfini's stories about Vlad were repeated in Sebastian Münster's Cosmography.[140] Münster also recorded Vlad's "reputation for
tyrannical justice".[140]
... Turkish
messengers came to [Vlad] to pay respects, but refused to take off their
turbans, according to their ancient custom, whereupon he strengthened their
custom by nailing their turbans to their heads with three spikes, so that they
could not take them off.
— Antonio
Bonfini: Historia Pannonica[148]
German stories
1499 German woodcut showing Dracule waide dining
among the impaled corpses of his victims
Works containing the stories about
Vlad's cruelty were published in Low German in the
Holy Roman Empire before 1480.[149][150] The stories
were allegedly written in the early 1460s, because they describe Vlad's
campaign across the Danube in early 1462, but they do not refer to
Mehmed II's invasion of Wallachia in June of the same year.[151] They provide a detailed narration of the conflicts between
Vlad and the Transylvanian Saxons, showing that they originated "in the
literary minds of the Saxons".[149]
The stories
about Vlad's plundering raids in Transylvania were clearly based on an
eyewitness account, because they contain accurate details (including the lists
of the churches destroyed by Vlad and the dates of the raids).[151] They describe Vlad as a "demented psychopath, a sadist,
a gruesome murderer, a masochist", worse than Caligulaand Nero.[150] However,
the stories emphasizing Vlad's cruelty are to be treated with caution[152] because
his brutal acts were very probably exaggerated (or even invented) by the
Saxons.[153]
The invention
of movable type printing contributed
to the popularity of the stories about Vlad, making them one of the first
"bestsellers" in Europe.[111] To enhance sales, they were published in books with woodcuts on their
title pages that depicted horrific scenes.[154] For
instance, the editions published in Nuremberg in 1499
and in Strasbourg in 1500
depict Vlad dining at a table surrounded by dead or dying people on poles.[154]
... [Vlad] had a
big copper cauldron built and put a lid made of wood with holes in it on top.
He put the people in the cauldron and put their heads in the holes and fastened
them there; then he filled it with water and set a fire under it and let the
people cry their eyes out until they were boiled to death. And then he invented
frightening, terrible, unheard of tortures. He ordered that women be impaled
together with their suckling babies on the same stake. The babies fought for
their lives at their mother's breasts until they died. Then he had the women's
breasts cut off and put the babies inside headfirst; thus he had them impaled
together.
— About
a mischievous tyrant called Dracula vodă (No. 12–13)[147]
Slavic stories
There are more
than twenty manuscripts (written between the 15th and 18th centuries)[155] which
preserved the text of the Skazanie o Drakule voievode (The
Tale about Voivode Dracula).[156] The
manuscripts were written in Russian, but they copied a text that had originally
been recorded in a South Slavic language, because they
contain expressions alien to the Russian language but used in South Slavic
idioms (such as diavol for
"evil").[157] The original text was written in Buda between
1482 and 1486.[158]
The nineteen
anecdotes in the Skazanie are longer
than the German stories about Vlad.[155] They are a mixture of fact and fiction, according to
historian Raymond T. McNally.[155] Almost
half of the anecdotes emphasize, like the German stories, Vlad's brutality, but
they also underline that his cruelty enabled him to strengthen the central
government in Wallachia.[159][160] For
instance, the Skazanie writes of a
golden cup that nobody dared to steal at a fountain[161] because
Vlad "hated stealing so violently ... that anybody who caused any evil or
robbery ... did not live long", thereby promoting public order, and the
German story about Vlad's campaign against Ottoman territory underlined his
cruel acts while the Skazanie emphasized
his successful diplomacy.[162] On the other
hand, the Skazanie sharply
criticized Vlad for his conversion to Catholicism, attributing his death to
this apostasy.[163] Some elements of the anecdotes were later added to Russian
stories about Ivan the Terrible of Russia.[164]
Assertion by modern
standards
The mass murders
that Vlad carried out indiscriminately and brutally would most likely amount to
acts of genocide and war crimes by current standards.[165] Romanian
defense minister Ioan Mircea Pașcu asserted
that Vlad would have been condemned for crimes against humanity had he been put
on trial at Nuremberg.[166]
National hero
Further
information: National awakening of
Romania
Ruins of Poienari Castle, the scene of a
popular tale about Vlad
Vlad the Impaler and the Turkish envoys, painting by Theodor Aman
The Cantacuzino Chronicle was the first
Romanian historical work to record a tale about Vlad the Impaler,
narrating the impalement of the old boyars of Târgoviște
for the murder of his brother, Dan.[167] The chronicle added that Vlad forced the young boyars and
their wives and children to build the Poienari Castle.[167] The legend
of the Poienari Castle was mentioned in 1747 by Neofit I, Metropolitan of Ungro–Wallachia, who
complemented it with the story of Meșterul Manole, who allegedly
walled in his bride to prevent the crumbling of the walls of the castle during
the building project.[167][168] In the
early 20th century, Constantin Rădulescu-Codin,
a teacher in Muscel County where the
castle was situated,[168] published
a local legend about Vlad's letter of grant "written on rabbit skin"
for the villagers who had helped him to escape from Poienari
Castle to Transylvania during the Ottoman invasion of Wallachia.[169] In other villages of the region, the donation is attributed
to the legendary Radu Negru.[170]
Rădulescu-Codin recorded further local legends,[171] some of
which are also known from the German and Slavic stories about Vlad, suggesting
that the latter stories preserved oral tradition.[172] For
instance, the tales about the burning of the lazy, the poor, and the lame at
Vlad's order and the execution of the woman who had made her husband too short
a shirt can also be found among the German and Slavic anecdotes.[173] The peasants telling the tales knew that Vlad's sobriquet
was connected to the frequent impalements during his reign, but they said only
such cruel acts could secure public order in Wallachia.[174]
Most Romanian
artists have regarded Vlad as a just ruler and a realistic tyrant who punished
criminals and executed unpatriotic boyars to strengthen the central government.[175] Ion Budai-Deleanu wrote the
first Romanian epic poem focusing on him.[175] Deleanu's Țiganiada (Gypsy
Epic) (which was published only in 1875, almost a century after its
composition) presented Vlad as a hero fighting against the boyars,
Ottomans, strigoi (or
vampires), and other evil spirits at the head of an army of gypsies and angels.[176] The poet Dimitrie Bolintineanu emphasized
Vlad's triumphs in his Battles of the Romanians in the middle
of the 19th century.[177] He
regarded Vlad as a reformer whose acts of violence were necessary to prevent
the despotism of the boyars.[178] One of the
greatest Romanian poets, Mihai Eminescu, dedicated a
historic ballad, The Third Letter, to the valiant princes of
Wallachia, including Vlad.[179] He urges
Vlad to return from the grave and to annihilate the enemies of the Romanian
nation:[179]
You must come, O
dread Impaler, confound them to your care.
Split them in two partitions, here the fools, the rascals there;
Shove them into two enclosures from the broad daylight enisle 'em,
Then set fire to the prison and the lunatic asylum.
— Mihai Eminescu: The Third
Letter[179]
In the early
1860s, the painter Theodor Aman depicted the meeting of Vlad
and the Ottoman envoys, showing the envoys' fear of the Wallachian ruler.[180]
Since the middle
of the 19th century, Romanian historians have treated Vlad as one of the
greatest Romanian rulers, emphasizing his fight for the independence of the
Romanian lands.[177][181] Even
Vlad's acts of cruelty were often represented as rational acts serving national interest.[182] Alexandru Dimitrie Xenopol was one of
the first historians to emphasize that Vlad could only stop the internal fights
of the boyar parties through his acts of terror.[178] Constantin C. Giurescu remarked, "The tortures
and executions which [Vlad] ordered were not out of caprice, but always had a
reason, and very often a reason of state."[182] Ioan Bogdan was one of the few Romanian historians who did
not accept this heroic image.[183] In his work published in 1896, Vlad Țepeș and the German and Russian Narratives,
he concluded that the Romanians should be ashamed of Vlad, instead of
presenting him as "a model of courage and patriotism".[178] According
to an opinion poll conducted in 1999, 4.1% of the participants chose Vlad the Impaler as one of "the most important historical
personalities who have influenced the destiny of the Romanians for the
better".[184]
Vampire mythology
Main
article: Dracula in popular
culture
Further information: Nosferatu (word) and Count Dracula
The stories
about Vlad made him the best-known medieval ruler of the Romanian lands in
Europe.[185] However,
Bram Stoker's Dracula, which was published
in 1897, was the first book to make a connection between Dracula and vampirism.[186] Stoker had
his attention drawn to the blood-sucking vampires of Romanian folklore by Emily Gerard's article about
Transylvanian superstitions (published in 1885).[187] His limited knowledge about the medieval history of Wallachia came
from William Wilkinson's book (Account
of the Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia with Political Observations
Relative to Them), published in 1820.[188][189]
Stoker
"apparently did not know much about" Vlad the Impaler,
"certainly not enough for us to say that Vlad was the inspiration
for" Count Dracula, according to Elizabeth Miller.[190] For
instance, Stoker wrote that Dracula had been of Székely origin
only because he knew about both Attila the Hun's destructive
campaigns and the alleged Hunnic origin of
the Székelys.[191] Stoker's
main source, Wilkinson, who accepted the reliability of the German stories,
described Vlad as a wicked man.[192] Actually,
Stoker's working papers for his book contain no references to the historical
figure.[189] Consequently,
Stoker borrowed the name and "scraps of miscellaneous information"
about the history of Wallachia when writing his book about Count Dracula.[189]
Pope Pius II's
legate, Niccolò Modrussa,
painted the only extant description of Vlad, whom he had met in Buda.[193] A copy of Vlad's portrait has been featured in the
"monster portrait gallery" in the Ambras Castle at Innsbruck.[194] The picture depicts "a strong, cruel, and somehow
tortured man" with "large, deep-set, dark green, and
penetrating eyes", according to Florescu.[194] The color of Vlad's hair cannot be determined, because Modrussa mentions that Vlad was black-haired, while the
portrait seems to show that he had fair hair.[194] The picture depicts Vlad with a large lower lip.[194]
Vlad's bad
reputation in the German-speaking territories can be detected in a number of
Renaissance paintings.[195] He was
portrayed among the witnesses of Saint Andrew's martyrdom
in a 15th-century painting, displayed in the Belvedere in Vienna.[195]A figure similar
to Vlad is one of the witnesses of Christ in the Calvary in a
chapel of the St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna.[195]
[Vlad] was not
very tall, but very stocky and strong, with a cold and terrible appearance, a
strong and aquiline nose, swollen nostrils, a thin and reddish face in which
the very long eyelashes framed large wide-open green eyes; the bushy black
eyebrows made them appear threatening. His face and chin were shaven, but for a
moustache. The swollen temples increased the bulk of his head. A bull's neck
connected [with] his head from which black curly locks hung on his
wide-shouldered person.
— Niccolò Modrussa's
description of Vlad the Impaler[196]
·
A woodcut
depicting Vlad on the title page of a German pamphlet about him, published in
Nuremberg in 1488
·
A 1491 engraving
from Bamberg, Germany,
depicting Dracole wayda
·
Calvary of Christ, 1460, Maria am
Gestade, Vienna
·
Pilate Judging
Jesus Christ, 1463, National Gallery, Ljubljana
·
Full-size
portrait of Vlad Țepeș in the "Gallery
of Ancestors" of the House of Esterházy, 17th century, Forchtenstein Castle
·
The Martyrdom of Saint Andrew, 1470–1480, Belvedere Galleries
·
Romania portal
·
Curtea Veche
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^ Balotă 1991, p. 159.
170.
^ McNally 1991, p. 218.
171.
^ McNally 1991, p. 217.
172.
^ McNally 1991, pp. 217–218.
173.
^ McNally 1991, pp. 219–220.
174.
^ McNally 1991, p. 219.
175.
^ a b Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 216.
176.
^ Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 217.
177.
^ a b Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 218.
178.
^ a b c Boia 1997, p. 200.
179.
^ a b c Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 219.
180.
^ Boia 1997, p. 195.
181.
^ Boia 1997, p. 192.
182.
^ a b Boia 1997, p. 196.
183.
^ Boia 1997, p. 199.
184.
^ Boia 1997, p. 17.
185.
^ Treptow 2000, p. 176.
186.
^ Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 221.
187.
^ Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 225.
188.
^ Florescu & McNally 1989, pp. 229–230.
189.
^ a b c Cain 2006, p. 182.
190.
^ Miller 2005, p. 112.
191.
^ Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 231.
192.
^ Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 230.
193.
^ Florescu & McNally 1989, pp. 85, 161.
194.
^ a b c d Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 84.
195.
^ a b c Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 204.
196.
^ Florescu & McNally 1989, p. 85.
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